Challenges to Sustainable Development in China: A Review of Six Large-Scale Forest Restoration and Land Conservation Programs

Six national programs—including the Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP), Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP), Desertification Combating Program around Beijing and Tianjin (DCBT), Shelterbelt Network Development Program (SNDP), Wildlife Conservation and Nature Reserve Protection Program (WCNR), and Industrial Timberland Plantation Program (ITPP)—were adopted as means to achieve the Chinese Government sustainable development national policy. While the programs have made promising progress circa 10 yr at the national level, problems exist at the regional and locals levels. This article, therefore, reviews the achievements and problems associated with the programs and their implementations, and provides recommendations for the full realization of the goals of the programs. We recommend a comprehensive strategy for future activities—including promotion of sustainability science, reformation of rigid policies and regulations, adoption of sustainable forestry practices, integrated ecosystem management approach, and formation of new international collaborations.